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| | MARIJUANA CANNABIS AS A MEDICINE
Category: Neurochemistry
Term Paper Code: 584
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ABSTRACT
Marijuana, scientifically known as Cannabis sativa or Cannabis indica , is the
most widely used illicit drug in the United States. Much evidence supports the
fact that it may possess properties that could warrant its usefulness in the
medical field. For example, it has been used in the treatment of nausea,
glaucoma, and migraines among other things.
On the other hand, many of its
useful effects are accompanied with side affects such as disorientation and
hallucinations. Very little studies have been done concerning the beneficial and
malignant effects of marijuana despite its ubiquitous nature in American
society. This paper combines many of the tested treatments of marijuana with
reported side effects in order to test the validity of the drug as a medicine.
Since the passage of the Controlled Substance Act in 1970, marijuana has been
considered a Schedule I drug. This means that it fits the following criteria: 1)
has a high potential for abuse, 2) has no currently accepted medical use, and 3)
lacks safety even under medical supervision (Boire 1993). No one can grow the
plant, possess it or any mix or preparation, or absorb it in any way. Many argue
in favor of the drug saying that it has no ill effects, and that it, in fact,
harbors medicinal properties. Proposition 215 amended California state law to
allow people to grow or possess marijuana for medical use when recommended by a
physician. The physician may diagnose that a patient may benefit from its use in
the treatment of cancer, anorexia, AIDS, chronic pain, spasticity, glaucoma,
arthritis, migraine, or any other illness for which marijuana provides relief.
Unfortunately, studies on the effects of marijuana are scarce so its useful
purposes are highly debatable. Whether or not medical marijuana deserves to be
legal shall be further examined here.
"Marijuana" is just one particular term for the hemp plant classified
as Cannabis sativa or Cannabis indica. Linnaeus gave its name and classification
in 1753 and for hundreds of years it has been used as an intoxicant or an herbal
remedy. Cannabis is easily distinguishable by its leaf which is often long, has
serrated edges and grows in groups of five, resembling the fingers of the hand.
It is made up of about 480 substances. The active ingredient in cannabis is
known as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-THC, mostly referred to simply as
THC). However, the plant’s chemistry goes far beyond just THC. A whole family
of drugs, called cannabinoids, are found exclusively in cannabis and may
contribute to the behavioral effects of the plant. Over 60 cannabinoids have
been identified, but the most common one is THC. The twist here is that the
active ingredient and the amount of active ingredient appear to depend on the
preparation and the route of administration of the marijuana. Cannabis is
sometimes ingested orally, but usually it is smoked and inhaled. Studies have
shown that burning changes many of the cannabinoids, perhaps creating new ones
with increased potencies. In addition, when inactive cannabidiol (a cannabinoid)
is burned, it gets converted into delta-9-THC (McKim 1991). More cannabinoids
are also created during digestion when marijuana is taken orally and also during
metabolism, but their effects are not fully known.
The entire cannabis plant contains THC, but there are certain parts that are
more potent than others. Flowering buds of female plants have the highest THC
content, hence the term "buds" for marijuana. Male plants do contain
THC, but not in the same quantity as the female plants so most commercial
growers selectively grow all females. Buds are usually smoked in a pipe, water
pipe, or in cigarette papers (joints), but they are also sometimes baked into
cookies, brownies, or some other baked goods to be eaten. When the dried resin
from the top of the female plant is harvested, it is known as hashish. Hashish
can be smoked alone, with tobacco or marijuana, or it can be baked like the
other parts of the plant. Purified hashish is called hash oil and is prepared by
boiling hashish in alcohol (or other solvent), filtering out the residue, and
evaporating the alcohol (McKim 1991). This is much more potent than hashish and
can be vaporized and inhaled or dropped onto paper (like tobacco paper) and
smoked.
The intake of marijuana can have several different effects. It may give the user
a feeling of euphoria, increased laughter or happiness, and a relaxed passive
mood. Short-term memory may be impaired, attention span may be decreased, and
senses may be distracted. Many users also lose track of time, experience
paranoia and anxiety, and have hallucinations. Their eyes may become bloodshot
because of the dilation of blood vessels in the eye whites. Pupils do not become
dilated, however, which was previously believed. Accurate measurements of pupil
diameter after smoking marijuana have actually shown that there is a slight
decrease in pupil size, but the change cannot be seen without precise
instruments (McKim 1991). Eyelids frequently droop, giving users a
distinguishing look about them that other people can often detect. In addition,
marijuana can cause a sensation of having a dry mouth accompanied by an
increased appetite known as the "munchies". These are all superficial
effects that marijuana has on smokers. On a molecular level, the drug’s
actions are not so simple.
Depending on how marijuana is administered, it is either absorbed by the lungs
or by the intestine, and then makes its way into the bloodstream. THC is highly
lipophilic or fat-soluble and may be stored in fat tissue. For this reason,
tests for cannabis in the body may detect its presence for over a month (Schlaadt
et al. 1982). Metabolites are then excreted in urine and feces. Some
cannabinoids accumulate in the fat of cells and are released over a period of
days (Schlaadt et al. 1982). As soon as the cannabinoids enter the body is when
metabolism of them begins. Some of the metabolism takes place in the lungs or
intestines, but most takes place in the liver. The delta-9-THC first gets
converted to 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC and then to other metabolites. Most of the
metabolites are not as lipid-soluble as THC but are more easily excreted (McKim
1991).
So what effect do these cannabinoids have on neurons that makes users feel
"high"? The old hypothesis relies on the fact that THC is highly
lipophilic so it probably perturbs the neural membrane. This disturbance could
alter the cell surface membrane’s selective permeability, allowing an increase
in intracellular sodium that could result in the disruption of assembly and the
orientation of cytoskeletal elements, as well as alter many functions (Friedman
et al. 1993). In 1990 the old hypothesis was put to rest when the discovery of a
cannabinoid receptor was made. The NIMH receptor specific for binding
cannabinoids was found throughout the mammalian brain and is a G protein coupled
receptor (Presti 1999). Although THC is not produced by mammalian bodies, the
receptor has a high affinity for THC. Several areas in the brain have a high
binding density for the receptor such as the cerebellum and the basal ganglia.
These parts of the brain are associated with movement and the perception of
time. The hippocampus which plays a role in memory has high binding density as
well as the cortex which is responsible for perception and reasoning.
On the other hand, the cannabinoid receptor has a low binding density for THC in
the brain stem. All vital biological functions are coordinated by the brain stem
so the use of marijuana does not extensively impair the systems imperative for
survival. Therefore, there are no problems with marijuana overdose being lethal
and there have been no reported instances of deaths caused by marijuana.
Cannabinoids also have a number of effects on neurotransmitters. For example,
THC causes the release of seratonin from storage in the synapse (McKim 1991). It
also elevates levels of acetylcholine and inhibits the synthesis of
prostoglandins (McKim 1991). The cannabinoids have been shown to have an
influence on levels of GABA and cyclic AMP as well, but the effects that this
has on the psychological perspective and on behavior has not been extensively
studied (McKim 1991).
Despite the relatively little amount of scientific study done for marijuana, it
has many characteristics that suggest that it could be an important medicinal
drug. THC may act as an antiemetic, or a drug that prevents nausea and vomiting.
It has been used to treat the sickness from chemotherapy for cancer patients,
but no patterns of efficiency have been found for THC with regards to different
types of tumors or chemotherapy (Voth et al. 1997). In addition, several safe
and effective drugs other than cannabinoids are available for chemotherapy
nausea that do not exhibit the side effects of THC. One study showed that 810f
patients being treated with THC experienced negative side effects (Voth et al.
1997). Of these patients, 90f them reported hallucinations, distortions of
reality, and mental depression (Voth et al. 1997). Although THC can be effective
in treating nausea produced by chemotherapy, it is often associated with
intoxication.
In relation to people suffering from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
and severe cancer-related anorexia, THC may be helpful through its appetite
stimulating effects. In a study, 2.5 mg of oral THC administered two times a day
effectively stimulated appetite in patients with AIDS (Voth et al. 1997).
Although muscle mass or total body fat was not considered, patients maintained
or even increased weight slightly. There is no doubt that marijuana often
increases the appetite, but whether or not the accompanying intoxication makes
it unfit to be used as medication remains to be seen.
Intractable hiccups is also a complication of many AIDS patients. The condition
usually stems from an esophageal disease. A patient with a disease known as
esophageal candidosis had surgery and was treated with midazolam and
dexamethsone. The next day he developed intractable hiccups. Several different
drug treatments as well as the removal of a hair from the tympanic membrane had
no permanent effects on the hiccups. Eight days into the persistent hiccups, the
patient, having never smoked marijuana before, smoked marijuana, and his hiccups
stopped (Gilson et al. 1998). The next day they came back so the patient again
smoked marijuana whereupon the hiccups immediately ceased and did not recur (Gilson
et al. 1998). The drugs midazolam and dexamethsone, given to the patient during
surgery, probably caused the hiccups, but did marijuana stop them? "Because
intractable hiccups is an uncommon condition, it is unlikely that the use of
marijuana will ever be tested in a controlled clinical trial" (Gilson et
al. 1998).
Another treatment that marijuana may be useful for is glaucoma. Glaucoma is a
condition where pressure in the eyes is too high. Many cannabinoids have been
shown to reduce the pressure of the fluid in the eyeball. Cannabinol, nabilone,
THC, and delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol have all been found to reduce pressure
whereas cannabidiol does not (Voth et al.1997). Unfortunately, in order to
reduce intraocular pressure, patients must remain under the influence of the
cannabinoid almost continuously. No evidence has been found that indicate that
pure THC or crude marijuana affects or prevents the underlying disease, despite
the fact that it relieves pressure and may be helpful treating the disease.
At least in humans, marijuana causes drowsiness and increases sleeping time.
Therefore, it may be useful in treating insomnia. Sleeping patterns definitely
change during marijuana use, but the effects are not completely understood. At
low doses, some studies do not find any effect at all (McKim 1991). At higher
doses, it may interfere with sleep resulting in insomnia and depression of total
REM sleep along with total eye movement activity during REM (Tart et al. 1970).
Habitual smokers of marijuana may have difficulty getting to sleep. However, the
sleep is not of poor quality, or accompanied by nightmares or frequent wakening.
Perhaps marijuana would be most helpful in situations where insomnia is not a
regular occurrence, but on infrequent occasions at mild doses. That way
drowsiness would be induced without severe disturbance of the sleep schedule.
Some people report that marijuana is useful in treating multiple sclerosis,
spasticity and other movement disorders. A recent study showed that in 112
multiple sclerosis patients who were treated with marijuana to relieve symptoms,
700f them said that marijuana reduced spasticity, chronic pain of extremities,
paresthesias, numbness, trigeminal neuralgia, tremor, and reactive depression
and anxiety (Smith 1998). Another study showed that smoked marijuana did not
improve tremor symptoms in five patients suffering from idiopathic parkinsonism
(Smith 1998). Much evidence suggests that cannabinoids have anticonvulsant
effects against partial seizures, but results from human experimentation are
mixed. One case reports that smoked marijuana may exacerbate epilepsy while
another says that it improves seizure control (Smith 1998). Information and
experimentation on these movement disorders is very limited and unclear. THC or
other cannabinols have not been tested against the standard antispastic
medications, but should especially be considered for those who exhibit negative
responses to the standard oral medication.
Analgesic effects of THC and smoking marijuana have been studied to a small
degree. An endogenous cannabinoid that serves as a ligand has been found for the
THC receptor in humans. This ligand is known as anandamide and may play a role
in regulating the threshold for pain. A recent study indicates that a high
affinity cannabinoid agonist relieves pain behavior effectively in a rat model
of neuropathic pain (Smith 1998). There are also reports of pain relief by
smoking marijuana from headache, menstrual cramps, and abdominal pain (Smith
1998).
With regards to asthma, cannabinoids can dilate bronchioles to loosen
constriction on air passageways. This effect, however is a short-term relief of
asthmatic symptoms. In the long run, cannabinoids contain particulates and
irritating terpenes that can actually cause bronchospasms. Lungs that are
continually exposed to marijuana smoke exhibit changes as serious as, and
perhaps even more serious than those found in tissues of cigarette smokers (Schlaadt
et al. 1986). The practice of consuming large quantities of marijuana with deep
inhalations as well as holding the smoke in may contribute to problems that
might not occur when used in smaller quantities on a less frequent basis. Again,
it is uncertain whether the beneficial effects of the drug support its use in
the medical field despite the associated side effects.
Short-term adverse effects, besides the ones already mentioned, are numerous.
One of the most common is anxiety or a panicked feeling. This is most common in
elderly people, and occurs much less frequently in children. Psychosis has also
been reported from marijuana usage. Incidences exist where patients have been
admitted into psychiatric hospitals and test positive for marijuana use.
However, a study of 10000 psychiatric hospital admissions argues that little
evidence shows that a psychotic disorder can arise in a previously non-psychotic
(Gurley et al. 1998). Cannabinoids may cause drug interactions deduced by their
ability to decrease gut motility, decrease stomach acidity, and increase
activity of the cytochrome P450 system (Gurley et al. 1998). Therefore, medical
marijuana users should be very cautious of mixing it with other medications.
Marijuana can be a source of infections and has been documented to be
contaminated with many fungal species that may cause pulmonary and systemic
infections (Gurley et al. 1998). A Salmonella outbreak was attributed to
marijuana that was heavily contaminated with animal feces. Similarly, a
hepatitis B outbreak in U.S. military personnel in Europe was linked to
marijuana use (Gurley et al. 1998). Because marijuana impairs perception, focus,
coordination, reaction time and time perception, it has been acknowledged as a
serious risk for automobile accidents as well. Adolescents who drove after
smoking marijuana at least six times a month were 2.4 times more likely to be
involved in an accident (Gurley et al. 1998). The short-term effects of
marijuana are indeed numerous, but obviously are not enough to deter people from
indulging in its use.
Long-term adverse effects carry more serious consequences, but many people
choose not to dwell on the long term. Using marijuana corresponds to the
impairment of fetal growth and with a decreased length of gestation (Gurley et
al. 1998). Developmental delays of the fetus also show up in pregnant women who
use marijuana, but they have not been shown to be solely responsible. On the
topic of lung damage that was addressed previously, marijuana contains more tar
than cigarettes and, since most marijuana joints don’t contain filters, more
of the particulates and carcinogens are inhaled. Thus, the potential for cancer
and other lung diseases may be relatively high. Gynecomastia, the development of
breast tissue in males, has also been cited as an adverse effect of marijuana.
The condition is sensitive to changes in the ratio of estrogens to androgens
which is thought to be altered by stimulation of the cytochrome P450 enzyme
system by cannabis (Gurley et al. 1998). A frequently mentioned concern among
smokers is that it might cause infertility, but this belief remains unconfirmed.
Immunologic studies have, however, been used to show that cannabis acts as an
immunosuppressant (Schlaadt et al. 1986). By inhibiting the body’s ability to
respond to disease, it leaves the body more open to infections. The long-term
effects of marijuana certainly seem more menacing than the short-term effects,
but still don’t dampen the fact that marijuana is the most frequently used
illicit drug in the United States.
Should marijuana be considered for medical use? The fact that the drug may
produce dependence makes it difficult to choose between its therapeutic uses and
its potentially dangerous properties. Also, burning and inhaling a drug deviates
from the normal drug approval process which usually involves purified substances
that can be manufactured and tested in a reproducible fashion (Smith 1998).
Despite its possible therapeutic uses, it may be best suited as an alternative
medicine if it does not provide any better of a response than an accepted drug.
On the other hand, smoking allows a patient to regulate his or her dosages
according to his or her own needs. Therefore, the self administration of the
drug would be relatively easy. The benefits of marijuana are almost always
countered by some negative effect so patients may be reluctant to use the
substance. Those that are not reluctant, however, might benefit greatly by its
use. Without a doubt, the time and the effort dedicated to studying the effects
of cannabinoids has not been enough to determine whether they should truly be
removed from their classification as a Schedule I drug. Several other drugs with
adverse effects are prescribed every day. Perhaps it has been determined that
their therapeutic effects outweigh the adverse effects. If marijuana receives
its deserved examination, it may not be long before it becomes accepted
medicinally or even legalized.
References
Friedman, H., T.W. Klein and S. Spector, "Drugs of Abuse, Immunity, and
AIDS". Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, v. 335, Plenum Press,
New York; 1993, p. 69-119.
Gilson, I. and Mary Busalacchi, "Marijuana for intractable hiccups".
The Lancet, v. 351; 1998, p. 267.
Gurley, J., R. Aranow and M. Katz, "Medicinal Marijuana: A Comprehensive
Review". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, v. 30, n. 2; 1998, p. 137-146.
McKim, W., Drugs and Behavior. Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey; 1991.
Mead, A., "Proposition 214". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, v. 30, n.
2; 1998, p. 151-153.
Schlaadt, R. and P. Shannon, Drugs of Choice. Prentic-Hall Inc., New Jersey;
1986.
Smith, D. "Review of the AMA Report on Medical Marijuana". Journal of
Psychoactive Drugs, v. 30, n. 2; 1998, p. 133-135.
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