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Marijuana Botany
An Advanced Study: The Propagation and Breeding of
Distinctive Cannabis
The Propagation and Breeding of Distinctive Cannabis
All 5 Chapters Online
Marijuana Botany
An Advanced Study: The Propagation and Breeding of Distinctive Cannabis
by Robert Connell Clarke
CHAPTER 1
Sinsemilla Life Cycle of Cannabis
CHAPTER 2
Propagation of Cannabis
CHAPTER 3
Genetics and Breeding of Cannabis
CHAPTER 4
Maturation and Harvesting of Cannabis
Introduction
Cannabis, commonly known in the United States as
marijuana, is a wondrous plant an ancient plant and an
ally of humanity for over ten thousand years. The pro-
found impact Cannabis has had on the development and
spread of civilization and conversely, the profound effects
we've had on the plant's evolution are just now being
discovered.
Cannabis was one of the earliest and most important
plants placed under cultivation by prehistoric Asian
peoples. Virtually every part of the plant is usable. From
the stem comes hemp, a very long, strong fiber used to
make rope, cloth, and paper renowned for durability. The
dried leaves and flowers become the euphoriant, marijuana,
and along with the root, are also used for numerous medi-
cines. The seeds were a staple food in ancient China, one of
their major "grains." Cannabis seeds are somewhat unpala-
table and are now cultivated mainly for oil or for animal
feed. The oil is similar to linseed and is used for paint and
varnish making, fuel, and lubrication.
Cultivated Cannabis quickly spread westward from its
native Asia and by Roman times hemp was grown in almost
every European country. In Africa, marijuana was the pre-
ferred product, smoked both ritually and for pleasure.
When the first colonists came to America they, quite
naturally, brought hemp seed with them for rope and
home-spun cloth. Hemp fiber for ships' rigging was so im-
portant to the English navy that colonists were paid boun-
ties to grow hemp and in some states, penalties were
imposed on those who didn't. Prior to the Civil War, the
hemp industry was second only to cotton in the South.
Today, Cannabis grows around the world and is, in
fact, considered the most widely distributed of all culti-
vated plants, a testimony to the plant's tenacity and adapt-
able nature as well as to its usefulness and economic value.
Unlike many plants, Cannabis never lost the ability to
flourish without human help despite, perhaps, six millennia
of cultivation.
Whenever ecological circumstances permit, the plants
readily "escape" cultivation by becoming weedy and estab-
lishing "wild" populations. Weedy Cannabis, descended
from the bygone hemp industry, grows in all but the more
arid areas of the United States. Unfortunately, these weeds
usually make a very poor grade marijuana.
Such an adaptable plant, brought to a wide range of
environments, and cultivated and bred for a multitude of
products, understandably evolved a great number of dis-
tinctive strains or varieties, each one uniquely suited to
local needs and growing conditions. Many of these varieties
may be lost through extinction and hybridization unless a
concerted effort is made to preserve them. This book pro-
vides the basis for such an undertaking.
There are likely more varieties of marijuana being
grown or held as seeds in this country than any other.
While traditional marijuana growers in Asia and Africa,
typically, grow the same, single variety their forebears
grew, American growers seek and embrace varieties from
all parts of the world. Very potent, early-flowering varieties
are especially prized because they can complete maturation
even in the northernmost states. The Cannabis stock in the
United Nations seed bank is at best, depleted and in dis-
array. American growers are in the best position to prevent
further loss of valuable varieties by saving, cataloguing, and
propagating their seeds.
Marijuana Botany-the Propagation and Breeding of
Distinctive Cannabis is an important and most welcome
book. Its main thrust is the presentation of the scientific
and horticultural principles, along with their practical ap-
plications, necessary for the breeding and propagation of
Cannabis and in particular, marijuana. This book will appeal
not only to the professional researcher, but to the mari-
juana enthusiast or anyone with an eye to the future of
Cannabis products.
To marijuana growers who wish to improve or up-
grade their varieties, the book is an invaluable reference.
Basic theories and practices for breeding pure stock or
hybrids, cloning, grafting, or breeding to improve quali
ties such as potency or yield, are covered in a clear, easy-
to-follow text which is liberally complemented with draw-
ings, charts, and graphs by the author. Rob Clarke's
drawings reflect his love of Cannabis. They sensitively
capture the plant's elegance and ever-changing beauty while
being always informative and accurately rendered.
The reader not familiar with botanical terms need not
be intimidated by a quick glance at the text. All terms are
defined when they are introduced and there is also a glos-
sary with definitions geared to usage. Anyone familiar with
the plant will easily adopt the botanical terms.
Years from now, many a marijuana smoker may un-
knowingly be indebted to this book for the exotic varieties
that will be preserved and new ones that will be developed.
Growers will especially appreciate the expert information
on marijuana propagation and breeding so attractively and
clearly presented.
Mel Frank
author, Marijuana Growers' Guide
Preface
Turn again our captivity, 0 Lord,
as the streams in the dry land.
They that sow in tears shall reap in joy.
He that goeth forth and weepeth,
bearing precious seed,
shall doubtless come again with rejoicing,
bringing his sheaves with him.
-Psalms 126: 4-6
Cannabis is one of the world's oldest cultivated plants.
Currently, however, Cannabis cultivation and use is illegal
or legally restricted around the globe. Despite constant
official control, Cannabis cultivation and use has spread
to every continent and nearly every nation. Cultivated and
wild Cannabis flourishes in temperate and tropical climates
worldwide. Three hundred million users form a strong un-
dercurrent beneath the flowing tide of eradication. To
judge by increasing official awareness of the economic
potentials of Cannabis, legalization seems inevitable al-
though slow. Yet as Cannabis faces eventual legalization it
is threatened by extinction. Government-sanctioned and
-supported spraying with herbicides anddd other forms of
eradication have chased ancient Cannabis strains from their
native homes.
Cannabis has great potential for many commercial
uses. According to a recent survey of available research by
Turner, Elsohly and Boeren (1980) of the Research Insti-
tute of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of Missis-
sippi, Cannabis contains 421 known compounds, and new
ones are constantly being discovered and reported. Without
further understanding of the potentials of Cannabis as a
source of fiber, fuel, food, industrial chemicals and medi-
cine it seems thoughtless to support eradication campaigns.
World politics also threaten Cannabis. Rural Cannabis
farming cultures of the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Cen
tral America and Mrica face political unrest and open
aggression. Cannabis seeds cannot be stored forever. If they
are not planted and reproduced each year a strain could be
lost. Whales, big cats, and redwoods are all protected in
preserves established by national and international laws.
Plans must also be implemented to protect Cannabis cul-
tures and rare strains from certain extinction.
Agribusiness is excited at the prospect of supplying
America's 20 million Cannabis users with domestically
grown commercial marijuana. As a result, development of
uniform patented hybrid strains by multinational agricul-
tural firms is inevitable. The morality of plant patent laws
has been challenged for years. For humans to recombine
and then patent the genetic material of another living or-
ganism, especially at the expense of the original organism,
certainly offends the moral sense of many concerned citi-
zens. Does the slight recombination of a plant's genetic
material by a breeder give him the right to own that organ-
ism and its offspring? Despite public resistance voiced by
conservation groups, the Plant Variety Protection Act of
1970 was passed and currently allows the patenting of 224
vegetable crops. New amendments could grant patent
holders exclusive rights for 18 years to distribute, import,
export and use for breeding purposes their newly devel-
oped strains. Similar conventions worldwide could further
threaten genetic resources. Should patented varieties of
Cannabis become reality it might be illegal to grow any
strain other than a patented variety, especially for food or
medicinal uses. Limitations could also be imposed such
that only low-THC strains would be patentable. This could
lead to restrictions on small-scale growing of Cannabis;
commercial growers could not take the chance of stray
pollinations from private plots harming a valuable seed
crop. Proponents of plant patenting claim that patents will
encourage the development of new varieties. In fact, patent
laws encourage the spread of uniform strains devoid of the
genetic diversity which allows improvements. Patent laws
have also fostered intense competition between breeders
and the suppression of research results which if made pub-
lic could speed crop improvement. A handful of large cor-
porations hold the vast majority of plant patents. These
conditions will make it impossible for cultivators of native
strains to compete with agribusiness and could lead to the
further extinction of native strains now surviving on small
farms in North America and Europe. Plant improvement
in itself presents no threat to genetic reserves. However,
the support and spread of improved strains by large cor-
porations could prove disastrous.
Like most major crops, Cannabis originated outside
North America in still-primitive areas of the world. Thou-
sands of years ago humans began to gather seeds from wild
Cannabis and grow them in fields alongside the first culti-
vated food crops. Seeds from the best plants were saved for
planting the following season. Cannabis was spread by no-
madic tribes and by trade between cultures until it now ap-
pears in both cultivated and escaped forms in many nations.
The pressures of human and natural selection have resulted
in many distinct strains adapted to unique niches within
the ecosystem. Thus, individual Cannabis strains possess
unique gene pools containing great potential diversity. In
this diversity lies the strength of genetic inheritance. From
diverse gene pools breeders extract the desirable traits in-
corporated into new varieties. Nature also calls on the gene
pool to ensure that a strain will survive. As climate changes
and stronger pests and diseases appear, Cannabis evolves
new adaptations and defenses.
Modern agriculture is already striving to change this
natural system. When Cannabis is legalized, the breeding
and marketing of improved varieties for commercial agri-
culture is certain. Most of the areas suitable for commercial
Cannabis cultivation already harbor their own native strains.
Improved strains with an adaptive edge will follow in the
wake of commercial agriculture and replace rare native
strains in foreign fields. Native strains will hybridize with
introduced strains through wind-borne pollen dispersal and
some genes will be squeezed from the gene pool.
Herein lies extreme danger! Since each strain of Can-
nabis is genetically unique and contains at least a few genes
not found in other strains, if a strain becomes extinct the
unique genes are lost forever. Should genetic weaknesses
arise from excessive inbreeding of commercial strains, new
varieties might not be resistant to a previously unrecog-
nized environmental threat. A disease could spread rapidly
and wipe out entire fields simultaneously. Widespread crop
failure would result in great financial loss to the farmer and
possible extinction of entire strains.
In 1970, to the horror of American farmers and plant
breeders, Southern corn leaf-blight (Helm in thosporium
maydis) spread quickly and unexpectedly throughout corn
crops and caught farmers off guard with no defense.
H. maydis is a fungus which causes minor rot and damage
in corn and had previously had no economic impact. How-
ever, in 1969 a virulent mutant strain of the fungus ap-
peared in Illinois, and by the end of the following season
its wind-borne spores had spread and blighted crops from
the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Approximately
15% of America's corn crop was destroyed. In some states
over half the crop was lost.
Fortunately the only fields badly infected were those
containing strains descended from parents of what corn
breeders called "the Texas strain." Plants descended from
parents of previously developed strains were only slightly
infected. The discovery and spread of the Texas strain had
revolutionized the corn industry. Since pollen from this
strain is sterile, female plants do not have to be detasseled
by hand or machine, saving farmers millions of dollars
annually. Unknown to corn breeders, hidden in this im-
proved strain was an extreme vulnerability to the mutant
leaf-blight fungus.
Total disaster was avoided by the around-the clock
efforts of plant breeders to develop a commercial strain
from other than Texas plants. It still took three years to
develop and reproduce enough resistant seed to supply all
who needed it. We are also fortunate that corn breeders
could rise to the challenge and had maintained seed re-
serves for breeding. If patented hybrid strains of Cannabis
are produced and gain popularity, the same situation could
arise. Many pathogens are known to infect Cannabis and
any one of them has the potential to reach epidemic pro-
portions in a genetically uniform crop. We can not and
should not stop plant improvement programs and the use
of hybrid strains. However, we should provide a reserve of
genetic material in case it is required in the future. Breeders
can only combat future problems by relying on primitive
gene pools contained in native strains. If native gene pools
have been squeezed out by competition from patented
commercial hybrids than the breeder is helpless. The forces
of mutation and natural selection take thousands of years
to modify gene pools, while a Cannabis blight could spread
like wildfire.
As Cannabis conservationists, we must fight the further
amendment of plant patent laws to include Cannabis, and
initiate programs immediately to collect, catalogue, and
propagate vanishing strains. Cannabis preserves are needed
where each strain can be freely cultivated in areas resemb-
ling native habitats. This will help reduce the selective
pressure of an introduced environment, and preserve the
genetic integrity of each strain. Presently such a program is
far from becoming a reality and rare strains are vanishing
faster than they can be saved. Only a handful of dedicated
researchers, cultivators, and conservationists are concerned
with the genetic fate of Cannabis. It is tragic that a plant
with such promise should be caught up in an age when ex-
tinction at the hands of humans is commonplace. Respon-
sibility is left with the few who will have the sensitivity to
end genocide and the foresight to preserve Cannabis for
future generations.
Marijuana Botany presents the scientific knowledge
and propagation techniques used to preserve and multiply
vanishing Cannabis strains. Also included is information
concerning Cannabis genetics and breeding used to begin
plant improvement programs. It is up to the individual to
use this information thoughtfully and responsibly.
CHAPTER 1
Sinsemilla Life Cycle of Cannabis
CHAPTER 2
Propagation of Cannabis
CHAPTER 3
Genetics and Breeding of Cannabis
CHAPTER 4
Maturation and Harvesting of Cannabis |
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